A Historical Brief Breakdown Of The Conflicts Between the Ashʿarīs, and the Sufis against Ahl al Hadith. The Origins of the Conflict The disagreements between the Ashʿarīs and Ahl al Hadith concerned the attributes of Allah, His speech, and certain practices. Those who affirmed Allah's attributes were accused of tajsīm and tashbīh. Their opponents also called them al Ḥashwiyyah. Some Sufis joined the Ashʿarīs in opposing Ahl al Hadith. The Hanbalis criticised their practices, denounced the lies concerning karāmāt (miracles granted to righteous people), and opposed seeking help from other than Allah. The Sufis, whose influence depended partly upon the respect they received from the people, responded by attacking Hanbali beliefs and accusing their scholars of innovation and disbelief. This brought some Ashʿarīs and Sufis together in their opposition to those who affirmed Allah's attributes. (Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, ʿAmmār Khanfar, p. 570) The Removal of al Qāhir and the Appointment of al Rāḍī in 322 AH In 322 AH, the Abbasid caliph al Qāhir was removed from power and blinded. Military factions, including the Sājiyyah and Ḥajariyyah, took part in appointing al Rāḍī as the new caliph. Their commanders, including Ṭarīf al Subkarī and Badr al Kharashī, pledged allegiance to him. These events formed part of the political circumstances in Baghdad shortly before the confrontation between the Hanbalis and the authorities. (Tajārib al Umam wa Taʿāqub al Himam, Ibn Miskawayh, 5/381; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, p. 572) The Hanbalis and the Violence in Baghdad in 323 AH In 323 AH, the Hanbalis became active in commanding good and forbidding evil. When they found musical instruments, they broke them. When they discovered wine, they poured it away. They also intervened when they found men and women mixing together. If they were dissatisfied with the answers they received, they sometimes beat those involved and brought them before the police, accusing them of immoral conduct. Badr al Kharashī, the chief of police in eastern Baghdad, ordered the followers of al Barbahārī not to gather in groups of two or more, hold discussions on the deen, or lead prayers unless they recited the basmalah aloud in the morning and evening prayers. The Hanbalis refused to obey these restrictions. They sought support from blind men who stayed in the mosques. When a Shāfiʿī passed by, some of these men would strike him with their sticks, sometimes beating him until he was close to death. The caliph al Rāḍī then issued a statement condemning the Hanbalis. He accused them of attributing bodily characteristics to Allah, including fingers, limbs, hair, movement, ascent, and descent. He also condemned their opposition to visiting graves and certain practices concerning the righteous. He threatened them with severe beatings, killing, and the use of swords against their homes and gathering places if they continued. The accusations concerning Allah's attributes were made during a conflict that had begun over the Hanbalis' actions against unlawful practices. (al Kāmil fī al Tārīkh, Ibn al Athīr, 7/40–41; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, pp. 570–572) The Earlier Opposition to the Ashʿarīs The disagreement between the Hanbalis and Ashʿarīs existed before the later fighting in Baghdad. Abū Ismāʿīl al Anṣārī al Harawī opposed the Ashʿarīs and criticised their theological teachings. Yaḥyā ibn ʿAmmār was reported to have condemned Abū al Ḥasan al Ashʿarī publicly from the pulpit. Reports are also mentioned concerning ʿUmar ibn Ibrāhīm and Aḥmad ibn al Ḥasan al Khammāshī speaking against the Ashʿarīs. The earlier criticisms of the Ashʿarīs show that the disagreement between them and the Hanbalis existed long before Abū Naṣr al Qushayrī arrived in Baghdad, contrary to Ibn ʿAsākir's claim that the two groups had previously been united. (Tabyīn Kadhib al Muftarī, Ibn ʿAsākir, p. 163; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, p. 575) Abū Ismāʿīl al Anṣārī and His Trials in Herat During the reign of Sultan Alp Arslān, Abū Ismāʿīl al Anṣārī faced opposition in Herat because of his statements concerning Allah's attributes. The sultan arrived in Herat with his minister Niẓām al Mulk. Some scholars complained about Abū Ismāʿīl, and a gathering was arranged in which his beliefs were questioned. When asked what he relied upon, he pointed to his right sleeve and said that it contained the Book of Allah. He then pointed to his left sleeve and said that it contained the Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah ﷺ. He had the two Ṣaḥīḥ collections with him. When the minister questioned him about his criticism of Abū al Ḥasan al Ashʿarī, Abū Ismāʿīl explained that his opposition concerned those who denied that Allah is above His creation, denied that the Qur'an is truly Allah's speech, or made statements concerning the Prophet ﷺ that he regarded as false. The minister became angry. Abū Ismāʿīl left the gathering, refused the gifts and garments of honour offered to him, and returned to Herat. (al Manshūr fī al Ḥikāyāt wa al Suʾālāt, Ibn Ṭāhir, p. 35; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, pp. 582–583) Abū Ismāʿīl also reported that he had been threatened with the sword on five occasions. His opponents demanded that he stop speaking against their beliefs, but he refused. In another incident, his opponents secretly placed a small bronze object resembling an idol beneath his prayer mat, in the prayer niche of his mosque. They then complained to the ruler that he worshipped an idol. The ruler sent men to investigate, and the object was brought before him. Abū Ismāʿīl explained that it was a small object used in a game and denied that it belonged to him or that he worshipped it. When the ruler questioned those responsible, they admitted that they wanted to turn the public against Abū Ismāʿīl because of his influence among the people. The ruler threatened them and ordered them to leave, while Abū Ismāʿīl was treated with honour. No precise date is given for this particular incident. (al Manshūr fī al Ḥikāyāt wa al Suʾālāt, Ibn Ṭāhir, p. 72; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, pp. 581–582) Abū Naṣr al Qushayrī and the Conflict in 469 AH In 469 AH, Abū Naṣr ʿAbd al Raḥīm ibn Abī al Qāsim al Qushayrī arrived in Baghdad. He had studied under Imām al Ḥaramayn al Juwaynī and followed the Ashʿarī school. He began teaching and preaching, attracted many followers, and spoke against the Hanbalis, accusing them of tajsīm. Abū Saʿd Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad al Ṣūfī strongly supported him. Abū Isḥāq al Shīrāzī also became involved in supporting his position. Ibn al Jawzī even admits that al Qushayrī's attacks upon the Hanbalis were among the causes of the fighting that followed. (al Kāmil fī al Tārīkh, Ibn al Athīr, 8/261; al Muntaẓam, Ibn al Jawzī, 17/190; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, pp. 573–575) The Attack Near the Mosque of al Sharīf Abū Jaʿfar The conflict became more severe when al Qushayrī's supporters sought to strengthen their numbers. Money was offered to Jews to embrace Islam at the hands of al Qushayrī, so that the gathering around him would become larger. One Jewish man accepted Islam and was carried through the streets on a riding animal. A group then agreed to attack al Sharīf Abū Jaʿfar in his mosque. Al Sharīf Abū Jaʿfar had already arranged for men to defend him if his opponents attacked. When the opposing group approached the mosque, his defenders threw bricks at them. A tailor from Sūq al Thulāthāʾ (the Tuesday Market) was killed, and other people were injured. The fighting spread through Baghdad. Women gathered near the mosque calling for help, and Abū Isḥāq al Shīrāzī became angry over what had occurred. Abū Isḥāq al Shīrāzī and Abū Bakr al Shāshī wrote to Niẓām al Mulk concerning the conflict, while the latter did not want the fighting associated with the Niẓāmiyyah school. Niẓām al Mulk was asked to intervene and bring the fighting to an end. (Wafayāt al Aʿyān, Ibn Khallikān, 3/207–208; al Muntaẓam, Ibn al Jawzī, 16/181–182; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, pp. 573–575) The Attempt to Reconcile the Two Groups Niẓām al Mulk arranged a gathering involving al Sharīf Abū Jaʿfar, Abū Isḥāq al Shīrāzī, and supporters of the Ashʿarīs. Al Sharīf Abū Jaʿfar explained that their disagreement concerned uṣūl, not a personal quarrel. He criticised Abū Saʿd al Ṣūfī for his involvement in lahw wa samāʿ (amusement and listening to music/singing), and rejected the idea that reconciliation could take place while the two groups disagreed concerning Allah's attributes. He also pointed out that the Abbasid caliphs al Qādir and al Qāʾim had publicly affirmed the creed of Ahl al Sunnah, and that this belief had received support among the people of Iraq and Khurāsān. Niẓām al Mulk treated al Sharīf Abū Jaʿfar with respect and kissed his head. However, the gathering did not bring an end to their disagreement concerning belief. (al Bidāyah wa al Nihāyah, Ibn Kathīr, 12/140–141; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, pp. 575–577) The Violence in 474 AH In 474 AH, a preacher from Alexandria came out of the Niẓāmiyyah school with some of his followers and went to Sūq al Thulāthāʾ. He began speaking against the Hanbalis and declaring them disbelievers. Someone threw a brick at the preacher. He then entered the market and sought help from its people. This caused another confrontation between the two groups. (al Muntaẓam, Ibn al Jawzī, 16/191; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, p. 577) Abū al Qāsim al Bakrī and the Events of 475 AH In 475 AH, Abū al Qāsim al Bakrī, an Ashʿarī Sufi preacher from Morocco, arrived in Baghdad. He was given permission to preach and insisted upon holding his gathering in Jāmiʿ al Manṣūr. Armed men, including Turkish soldiers and others, accompanied him. During his sermon, he recited the verse: "Suleymaan did not disbelieve, but the devils disbelieved." (al Baqarah 102) He then said that Imām Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal had not disbelieved, but that his followers had. His statement caused anger among the Hanbalis. During the gathering, material from the roof fell. Al Bakrī accused some Hāshimis of arranging this deliberately. When the mosque officials challenged his accusation, the conflict increased. He was also accused of making statements concerning the Qur'an that angered Ahl al Sunnah. Ibn ʿAqīl records that al Bakrī attributed an offensive statement to the Hanbalis, falsely suggesting that they described Allah with a male organ...wal ʿiyādhu billāh They also spoke of the Hanbalis believing that Allah died from a disease affecting it!?!?! This accusation was used to incite people against them. (al Muntaẓam, Ibn al Jawzī, 16/224–225; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, pp. 577–579) The Accusations Against the Hanbalis in 484 AH In 484 AH, Ibn ʿAqīl recorded that Niẓām al Mulk wanted to summon the Hanbalis and question their beliefs because he had been told that they were mujassimah. The accusation had become widely used against them, and it was brought before ministers and rulers as a reason to investigate their beliefs. This shows how the disagreement had developed beyond private discussions into matters brought before the authorities. (al Muntaẓam, Ibn al Jawzī, 16/295; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, p. 583) The Accusations Against al Qāḍī Abū Yaʿlā In a report which occured in Baghdad in 499 AH, al Qāḍī Abū Bakr ibn al ʿArabī attributed a statement to the Hanbali scholar al Qāḍī Abū Yaʿlā al Farrāʾ. Al Qāḍī Abū Bakr ibn al ʿArabī claimed that one of his trusted teachers had informed him that al Qāḍī Abū Yaʿlā al Farrāʾ said concerning Allah's attributes: "When Allah, the Most High, is mentioned, along with the apparent descriptions reported concerning His attributes, attribute to me whatever you wish, for I will accept it, except a beard and private parts." This is a false accusation attributed to Abū Yaʿlā, intended to portray the Hanbalis as believing that Allah is almost like a human. ʿAḍud al Dīn al Ījī and al Taftāzānī attributed to some Hanbalis the belief that the leather binding and outer covering of the muṣḥaf were eternal and without beginning. This accusation is a lie, since neither Imām Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal nor the scholars of Ahl al Hadith held such a belief. (Naẓm al Jumān, Ibn al Qaṭṭān, p. 132; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, p. 580) The Death of Abū Naṣr al Qushayrī in 514 AH After the conflict in Baghdad, Abū Naṣr al Qushayrī returned to Naysābūr. He continued teaching and preaching until he became seriously ill. His limbs became weak, and he was eventually paralysed. His speech was reduced to the remembrance of Allah. He died in Naysābūr on Friday, 28 Jumādā al Ākhirah, 514 AH. (Tārīkh al Islām, al Dhahabī, 11/221–222; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, pp. 573–574) Abū al Futūḥ al Isfarāʾīnī and the Events of 521 AH In 521 AH, Abū al Futūḥ al Isfarāʾīnī, known as al Muʾayyad ibn al Jund, caused another conflict in Baghdad. He was a Sufi preacher who supported the Ashʿarī school. When asked about the hadith stating that Ibrāhīm عليه السلام had spoken three untruths, he denied that the narration was authentic, although it is found in Ṣaḥīḥ al Bukhārī. On another occasion, he falsely attributed the following statement to the Messenger of Allah ﷺ. He claimed that when the Prophet was asked how he was that morning, he replied: "Blind among the blind, astray among those who are astray." The matter was reported to the minister Ibn Ṣadaqah, who summoned him. Abū al Futūḥ admitted making the statement and attempted to explain himself. Ibn Salmān, a teacher at the Niẓāmiyyah, said that Abū al Futūḥ had to renew his Islam and repent. He was prohibited from holding gatherings and ordered to leave Baghdad. After agreeing to repent, he was allowed to resume, but his statements continued to cause anger among the people. (al Kāmil fī al Tārīkh, Ibn al Athīr, 8/282; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, p. 578) The Stoning of Abū al Futūḥ and His Followers The hostility against Abū al Futūḥ became more severe. His followers were confronted near the mosque of Ibn Jarādah, where they were pelted with stones. Abū al Futūḥ was travelling on a riding animal, wearing armour, and accompanied by men carrying drawn swords to protect him. When he passed through Sūq al Thulāthāʾ, people threw stones and dead animal carcasses at him. The fighting and unrest continued in Baghdad. On the day Abū al Ḥasan ibn al Fāʿūs was buried, markets were closed, and the city experienced further conflict. Hanbalis shouted that it was a Sunni day, with no Qushayrī and no Ashʿarī. The authorities intervened, and the caliph al Mustarshid prohibited Abū al Futūḥ from holding gatherings and remaining in Baghdad. Ibn Ṣadaqah was described as favouring the position of Ahl al Sunnah and supporting the Hanbalis during these events. (al Muntaẓam, Ibn al Jawzī, 17/245; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, pp. 578–579) Abū al Futūḥ also supported the belief of kalām al nafsī, claiming that what people recite from the Qur'an is an expression of Allah's speech, while the true speech subsists within Himself. This was another matter of disagreement between the Ashʿarīs and Ahl al Hadith. (Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, p. 579) The Persecution of ʿAbd al Ghanī al Maqdisī in Damascus Al Ḥāfiẓ ʿAbd al Ghanī al Maqdisī affirmed ʿuluww, and that the Qur'an is the uncreated speech of Allah. During his time in Damascus, Shāfiʿī, Ḥanafī, and Mālikī jurists gathered before al Muʿaẓẓam ʿĪsā and al Ṣārim Barghash, the governor of the citadel. They questioned his beliefs concerning Allah's attributes, particularly al jiha, al istiwāʾ, letters, and sound. When he refused to withdraw his statements, the jurists called him to be a kaffir and an innovator. They ruled that he should not be permitted to remain among the Muslims and that his blood could lawfully be shed. Several Kurdish emirs intervened on his behalf. He was granted three days to leave Damascus, and he travelled to Egypt. (al Wāfī bi al Wafayāt, al Ṣafadī, 19/22; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, p. 584) The Opposition to ʿAbd al Ghanī in Egypt The persecution of ʿAbd al Ghanī continued after he arrived in Egypt. He stayed near the hadith scholars, but jurists in Egypt complained about his beliefs and accused him of corrupting the religion of the people. The opposition became so severe that some jurists again issued a ruling permitting his killing. Al Ṣafī ibn Shukr, the minister of al ʿĀdil, was informed of the matter. He wrote to the governor of Egypt ordering that ʿAbd al Ghanī be expelled to Morocco. However, ʿAbd al Ghanī died before the order arrived. (al Wāfī bi al Wafayāt, al Ṣafadī, 19/22; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, pp. 584–585) Ibn Rajab also transmits a report concerning an Egyptian official who threatened to expel ʿAbd al Ghanī if he returned from a journey. The official went hunting, but his horse threw him, crushing his chest, and he died before returning. Yūsuf ibn al Ṭufayl then informed al Afḍal ibn Ṣalāḥ al Dīn of ʿAbd al Ghanī's situation. Al Afḍal wrote a letter recommending that he be treated with honour in Egypt. (Dhayl Ṭabaqāt al Ḥanābilah, Ibn Rajab, 3/37; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, p. 585) The Reports From Imām Aḥmad Concerning Allah's Speech The claim that Imām Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal denied Allah speaking with a sound is contradicted by reports transmitted from him. His son ʿAbdullah asked him about those who claimed that Allah did not speak to Mūsā عليه السلام with a sound. Imām Aḥmad replied that Allah spoke with a sound and that these hadiths should be narrated as they came. He also referred to the hadith of Ibn Masʿūd concerning the sound heard when Allah speaks. These reports confirm that Imām Aḥmad affirmed Allah's speech with letters and sound, contrary to the claim that he denied these attributes. (Kitāb al Sunnah, ʿAbdullah ibn Aḥmad, reports 533–534; Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, p. 585) The Later Opposition of Taqī al Dīn and Tāj al Dīn al Subkī Taqī al Dīn al Subkī and his son Tāj al Dīn al Subkī followed the Ashʿarī school and were connected to Sufism. Both criticised Ahl al Hadith and those who affirmed Allah's attributes. Some Ashʿarīs attributed the affirmation of Allah's attributes to Ibn Karrām and al Barbahārī, and later to Ibn Taymiyyah, as though these beliefs began with those scholars. The affirmation of Allah's attributes was the belief of the earlier scholars of Ahl al Hadith and did not originate with Ibn Karrām, al Barbahārī, or Ibn Taymiyyah. (Qiṣṣat al Ashāʿirah, p. 586) Conclusion The earliest confrontation described took place in 323 AH, when the Hanbalis acted against unlawful practices in Baghdad and came into conflict with the authorities. The later fighting between the Hanbalis and Ashʿarīs became very severe after Abū Naṣr al Qushayrī arrived in Baghdad in 469 AH and accused the Hanbalis of tajsīm. The disputes resulted in beatings, threats of execution, bricks and stones being thrown, deaths, accusations of disbelief, and rulers being asked to intervene against particular scholars. Abū al Qāsim al Bakrī and Abū al Futūḥ al Isfarāʾīnī contributed to later confrontations through their public statements, while Abū Ismāʿīl al Anṣārī and ʿAbd al Ghanī al Maqdisī faced repeated attempts to silence or expel them because of their beliefs. The Story of the Ashʿarīs: The Crimes of the People of Innovation, Recounting the Tribulations That Befell Them, in Refutation of al Qushayrī’s Story: The Complaint of the People of the Sunnah, Recounting the Ordeals They Suffered, by ʿAmmār Khanfar, pp. 570–586.